Smoking, Alcohol Consumption, and Periodontitis: A Comprehensive Review of the Association and Implications for Oral Health

Abstract

Smoking and alcohol consumption are widely recognized risk factors for periodontitis, a chronic inflammatory disease affecting the supporting structures of the teeth. This comprehensive review examines the association between smoking, alcohol consumption, and periodontitis, synthesizing evidence from epidemiological studies, mechanistic research, and clinical trials. Epidemiological evidence consistently demonstrates a dose-dependent relationship between smoking and alcohol consumption and the prevalence and severity of periodontal disease. Mechanistic studies have elucidated the underlying biological pathways through which smoking and alcohol exert their deleterious effects on periodontal tissues, including oxidative stress, immune dysregulation, and impaired wound healing. Clinical trials evaluating the efficacy of smoking cessation interventions and alcohol reduction strategies in improving periodontal health outcomes have yielded promising results, highlighting the potential benefits of behavior modification for periodontal disease management. Despite advances in understanding the association between smoking, alcohol, and periodontitis, challenges remain in translating research findings into effective public health interventions and clinical practice. Future research should focus on elucidating the molecular mechanisms linking smoking and alcohol to periodontal disease pathogenesis, developing targeted interventions for high-risk populations, and addressing socioeconomic disparities in access to periodontal care. This review underscores the importance of addressing modifiable risk factors such as smoking and alcohol consumption in comprehensive periodontal management strategies to promote oral health and reduce the burden of periodontal disease on individuals and society.